Educational Play: Theories, Perspectives, and Proposals

Educational Play: Theory, Programs, & Perspectives Abstract The following play program educational survey and observation details the educator and administrator perspectives on performance outcomes in four Virginia Beach schools. The use of play as an effective educational method is supported by the comprehensive literature review on the topic which discusses the major theories of Piaget, Erikson, and Vygotsky as the foundation for concluding how to best utilize play in the formal elementary education segment. The data provides a look into the primary factors driving play program success as well as hurdles to program effectiveness. Further research is needed to substantiate the solidification of play programs as empirically-supported components of successful education initiatives. Insert Title Page1 Abstract2 Introduction: Literature Review4 Literature Review5 Method8 Participants8 Instruments8 Process9 Issues and Considerations11 Data Analysis12 Results14 Group A16 Group B18 Group C19 Group D21 Discussion: Use and Limitations22 References:25 Appendices:27 Table 1. Total Respondents Breakdown27 Table 2. Survey Race and Gender Demographic Breakdown27 Table 3. Top Suggested Improvements for Play Program Effectiveness27 Appendix 1. The Play Curriculum Teacher Questionnaire28 Introduction: Literature Review In childhood education, the theory of play is of major importance to actualizing learning despite increasing administrator and educator focus on testing scores and performance outcomes. Theorists have posed a number of perspectives that address the importance and role of play in the primary education sector. Hymes (1981) contends that play is a solid foundation for teaching children as well as an insightful tool through which educators can accurately observe and assess student learning. Erikson’s (1950) theory of psychosocial development posits that play in not only helpful, but essential to childhood development. The psychologist states that play creates a safe space in which children can work out their conflicts. The imagination, when allowed to run free, facilitates self-exploration and autonomy. An environment can be deliberately designed to initiate play without personalizing the child’s engagement and interaction, thereby supporting freedom. Piaget (1962) expands play theory from the individual education to social interaction learning and development. Play and imitation become critical elements to learning and adapting to an external environment as the child learns about their world and self within this context. This hands-on involvement allows the child to experiment with symbols and self. According to Vygotsky (1978), play is also pertinent to developing the ability to defer immediate gratification as fantasy play assists the child in adapting to their circumstances and experiences through more mature means. For the purpose of this study, Piaget and Vygotsky’s theories of play will be used o evaluate the use of play in the primary education environment for self and social teaching; this will be achieved through a comprehensive review of current literature in conjunction with a play program survey to connect the theoretical foundation of play theory with the practical application of play in the classroom. Using four primary play programs in the Virginia Beach school district, the author examines play promotion and hindranc e to outline avenues for improving the use of play in the elementary education environment. Literature Review The United States school systems have moved away from the integration of play in primary education despite the extensive theories and research supporting the importance and use of play to childhood education and development. Even recess has been reduced as administrator and educator focus has been forcibly shifted to core education activities and test score outcomes (Stokes-Guinan, 2009; Smith & McKnight, 2009) with 40% of school districts having eliminated – or nearly eliminated – recess altogether (Zygmunt-Fillwalk & Bilello, 2005). However, while less students are receiving play opportunities in their structured school curriculum, this does not negate the wealth of research evidencing the social, emotional, and physical benefits of research and play (Stokes-Guinan, 2009). The U. S. system’s prioritization of student achievement is short-sighted in its scores-focus, failing to comprehend the building blocks that allow for students to build and sustain the capacity for greater individual and social learning success, thus improving academic advantage. Play assists children in navigating the real world through fantasy by empowering decision-making, initiative, rules, consequences, and uncertainty (Annetta, et al. , 2009). Research concludes that play is both imaginative and symbolic (Galvez-Martin, 1997). Bronson (1995) states that play is crucial to human existence and that this need extends into human learning as it is maintained and utilized throughout the individual’s lifespan (Galvez-Martin, 1997). Additionally, play is both an educational experience and a learning process s children engage their internal and external environments. According to Isenberg and Jacob (1982), in play, children learn how to learn. â€Å"When children play, they learn† (Annetta, et al. , 2009, p. 1091). This translates into the idea that, while playing, children are learning new methods, techniques, and skills through incidental ways. Researches often quote Piaget, Erikson, and Vygotsky’s theories of play in which play facilitate s intellectual, psychological, linguistic, and social growth through cognitive and symbolic exploration (Rivera, 2009). Fein (1985) examples the powerful creative component of play; however, the author also upholds play’s vital contribution to the development of language, memory, and problem solving (Galvez-Martin, 1997). A majority of modern education is defined by a rule-oriented realism in which play is, at best, compartmentalized. In 1987, Bergen contended that empowering academic achievement and cognitive capacity required the introduction and encouragement of play, stating that mastery of such skills would result in more sophisticated problem-solving and ingenuity. Play is a realm that fosters more in-depth understanding of environment, interpretation, and response; this definition speaks to the individual play perspective. However, there is also a social sphere wherein groups participate in this same development but through social role-playing and collaboration (Stokes-Guinan, 2009). As toys act as symbols, they can be insightfully used to teach fundamental principles and reinforce factual comprehension (O’Brien, 1993; Galvez-Martin, 1997). In any activity where mastery is the intended goal, play is the means for reaching this destination (Rivera, 2009). A wealth of perspectives on defining play and its impact exist; however, researchers have reached consensus on the integral importance of play in early childhood development and education programs using the theoretical foundations of Piaget (1962) and Vygotsky (1978). Each of the quoted authors cites various researchers, programs, and theorists in the goal of substantiating play as a plausible method for educational outcomes. The largest points of contention concern the definition of play and the exact cognitive connections. For example, Piaget’s (1962) assimilation theory does not necessarily equate to Vgotsky’s (1978) theory of cognitive development (Fox, n. d. ). While these divergences exist, there is little debate concerning the fundamental importance of play as the majority of researchers corroborate the vital need for play as a crucial framework for childhood education. Another point of divergence is the practical application of play in the classroom. The researchers offer a wealth of methods yet fail to construct a best practices model for play program development in elementary education. Furthermore, measuring the outcomes of these programs is a difficult task as it is challenging to isolate variables and validate causation. There are an extensive number of factors engaged in the creation of play programs, including government, administrator, educator, parent, and student influence and involvement. The necessity in research is to move beyond these limitations and reliance on theory, reaching empirically-based evidence for the use of play programs in public and private education forums. This is a difficult task for the academic research community. The theoretical framework for logically grasping the importance and role of play in learning is rooted in qualitative measures of study, exampled by surveys, observations, and other perception analyses. There are ways of comparing educational outcomes using strict tactics of methods separation to delineate the most effective techniques by their correlating outcomes; but again, it is important to highlight that the primary causation remains elusive as each child’s learning style, capacity, and conditioning are uniquely derived and affecting. Therefore, research in this field is likely to continue it trajectory of working from a sound theory context by aligning educational tactics to fit this construct. Method Participants The Virginia Beach School District has a total of seven schools (public and private) who have some form of official play program currently in place. The focus of this study is in detailing the success of implemented programs that have been operating these programs for a minimum of two years. In meeting this criterion, two schools were eliminated as possibilities and another denied an offer of participation through omission of response. Therefore, the survey sample population was reduced to four school groups, two private and two public, who qualified and accepted study inclusion. Prior to receiving the survey, each of the four school groups were contacted and the purpose of the study was discussed with the administration. After receiving agreement to allow their programs to be evaluated for this project, the participating staff received a preliminary email explaining the process and intent of the study which is to gain more in-depth understanding of factors that contribute to and factors that harm play program success. Administrators and educators were encouraged to submit any questions or concerns in response to the email; however, no further clarification was needed. Initial confirmation was received from 29 faculty members; but this number decreased to 27 as the final count of total survey completion upon commencement of the survey process. The sample qualifies as random in that the researcher set the criteria of the study population and both the schools and the staff members then determined participation voluntarily. Instruments The study instruments are two-fold. The first and major source of data collection is the play program questionnaire. The questionnaire includes a number of areas pertinent to further understanding the construct of the play programs, the participant or leaders backgrounds, the makeup of the professional and student body, and the perceived outcomes of the play program implementation. Additionally, respondents were asked to communicate in open-ended question format for a number of items to gain more specific feedback regarding their program achievements and pitfalls. The second arm of analysis is the on-site visitation and observation. Each of the four schools allowed the researcher to sit in on play program class times. This observation relies on the researcher’s perception and evaluation. In preparation for the analysis, an observation format checklist and focal point document was created to guide the researcher. Particular attention was directed at classroom engagement, learning outcomes, student interactivity, faculty attitudes, play duration, and play activities. The observation period additionally acts as an open-ended question response as the researcher aimed to incorporate as much information as possible regarding the design, delivery, and success of these individual programs. During this day period, the researcher optimized any opportunity for individual discussion with faculty members. Given the age of the students, it was determined unnecessary to include them in the evaluation at this time other than observing their perceived connection, response, and learning during the play period. Each program differed greatly; therefore, the researcher, after meeting the written document guide points of consideration, recorded observations freely in an attempt to eliminate preconceived analysis or areas of importance. Process The survey invitations were sent out on the same day; seven days after this, each of the five possible candidate schools were contacted via telephone. During this call, the researcher spoke to the Principle or Program Director. Within three days, four of the five candidates confirmed their commitment to the project, understanding the survey and the observation period framework of the study. The fifth institution was contacted twice more; however, after failing to obtain confirmation, the school was eliminated from participation. The questionnaire was then sent out to a total of 29 potential respondents who were identified by the school administrators as having direct involvement in the play program although in varying degrees. Participants received the survey via email at their school accounts. The questionnaires were then either mailed or emailed to the researcher. Within a ten-day period, 27 questionnaires were received and two administrators reported they were no longer involved significantly in the programs and could not honestly add to the survey. Upon receipt of the results, using the devised coding system, the researcher recorded replies in the research database. The surveys protected anonymity; the only identifying factor was the institution. The purpose of this distinction was for comparison of institutions as well as the difference between private and public school programs. After each of the surveys was properly coded, the observation period was conducted. Unfortunately, given each school’s constraints in procedure, it was impossible to replicate the observation at each of the schools. For example, School A included a four-hour total observation of the play program activities, five brief staff interviews, and a one hour interview session with the Play Program Director. School B’s observation was solely comprised of three hours of direct program observation. Each of the observation periods allowed for total checklist completion; however, the results were undeniably weaker in those periods where the researcher was not able to conduct interviews. After completion of the four observations, the researcher then applied a similar coding structure and documented these results in the study database. Patterns and insights were recorded as well. Interview responses were compartmentalized, coded, and quoted according to the devised system and to the perceived importance of input or reply. Results were then compiled and analyzed as outlined in the data analysis. During this procedure, the researcher identified patterns of similarity and differentiation as well as exacted a number of factors that seemed to have little relevance given the diversity of the results. Issues and Considerations The selection of the survey method is due mainly to ease of use, time constraints, and cost limitations; however, the questionnaire also aligns with study intention in its qualitative efforts of delineating factors of successful play programs. The survey structure also allows for a flexibility in data analysis as the results facilitate multivariate assessment. The standardization of the survey further provides an economy of analysis as the researcher determines the questions, and responses to be asked, recorded, coded, and analyzed. The disadvantages of this method of data collection are primarily linked to the study’s limited capacity for analysis through more scientific and mathematic modes of date correlation. Another consideration is the weakened validity of these results given the reliance on close-ended questions. The greatest area of concern, however, is both the human element of the respondents and the researcher. Reporting accuracy is difficult to ascertain and may be largely dependent upon circumstances, attitudes, and beliefs that have no direct connection to the program or study direction. The primary challenges included properly coding responses and determining study significance. In asserting correlations or points of interest, the researcher is met with questions of causation. The survey results yield useful information regarding play program design, delivery, assessment, and improvement; however, the reliance on qualitative data undermines the validity and generalization of the study. Instead, the study reveals a strong comparison within this small sample population but lacks quantitative empirical support through student performance assessments and comparison to prior to and following play program introduction. Understanding the realistic perimeters of the study is necessary for comprehending the actual and applicable usage of the results. For the participating institutions, the study builds a solid foundation for present and future objectives by taking the temperature of the current program faculty and educator perceptions. This microcosm perspective may be applied to other school districts where researchers seek similar comparison. On the macrocosmic scale, the results are guideposts in play program implementation and suggest future avenues of study in this field. Anonymity did not prove to be an ethical necessity for this study. Participants were willing and open to interdepartmental discussion; 85% of respondents included their names despite the lack of request. Data security was therefore unsubstantiated in this study sample. Despite the limitations of the questionnaire, the method of study aligns with research intent. Acknowledging analysis barriers offers a lens for grasping the integrity of the results as well as in understanding the importance of the human element in any organization initiative. With this clarity of mind, the study reveals useful data for the play program community as a whole. Data Analysis Data analysis is the process of data evaluation in which data is logically and mathematically deconstructed. In this project, the data was collected from the selected sample populations which consisted of both public and private primary education sites. In total, 27 participants committed to the project. Data preparation in this process involved logging the survey results, checking for accuracy, entering the data into the computer system, and developing a document database structure for examining various data measures and outcomes. Along with the survey, the researcher conducted four on-site observation periods, which included discussions with administrators and educators concerning student progress and implication. This data source serves to create a more comprehensive context for data and program comparison. The data collection is fundamentally qualitative. The main body of data collection is the questionnaire, which predominantly contains Likert scale reporting, short answer input, short response, and short answer questions. The first portion of the questionnaire collects demographic data relaying the respondents’ personal and professional history. This data was recorded and analyzed as it correlates with the specific play programs in question and the sample segment as a whole. Teacher age, education, sex, language fluency, race, profession, experience, and subject are outlined in this section and are analyzed for correlations, dependences, and relationships. The compilation of this raw data was used in relation to the Likert scale results to identify underlying trends, similarities, or dissimilarities in the reporting. The classroom portion is additionally intended to assist the researcher in differentiating results and relationships. The Diversity Item grouping allows the respondent to give more detailed observations of the student group and the diversity of the student make-up. This information may prove useful is comparing play program design and outcomes in accordance with student body profiles. Following this section, the questionnaire moves into the specific element breakdowns in the play curriculum. These ratings and measures provided the framework in which all other gathered data was integrated, compartmentalized, and correlated. Finally, the last part of the questionnaire provides space for personal reflection and response in open-ended answer format. The researcher has to use judgment in the identification and evidencing of the significance of these similarities; coded interview process was utilized, but the researcher is paramount in this stage of evaluation given the heavy reliance on personal perception and data interpretation. This questionnaire is a hand-written response format. Therefore, checking for accuracy is necessary part of the data review process. Major concerns are: legibility, complete response, and answer quality. Scale totals and categories will then be established to quantify survey results. In analyzing the data inputs, the researcher uses both descriptive and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics are employed to directly describe what the data shows whereas inferential statistics aim to intelligently reach conclusions existing outside of this base reading of the data. Univariate analysis is central as single variables will be compared across the section using: distribution and central tendency; dispersion and standard variation will not be used for this study. Simple distribution lists each variable value and the respondent number or percentage. Central tendency includes the three major types of estimates of: mean, median, and mode. Using inferential statistics, the researcher will simply compare different group segments performance outcomes and offer conclusions and recommendations based on these measurements. This discussion will incorporate the administrator and educator responses, in hopes of determining how play programs designs, outcomes, and perspectives can be maximized according to class, teacher, and institution profiles. Results The survey results were successfully collected from 27 respondents in 4 school groups (Table 1). The private school groups are divided into Group A and Group B while the public schools are denoted as Group C and Group D. Group A consists of a total of 6 participants – four educators and two administrators. Group B consists of 9 participants – 6 educators and 3 administrators. In total, the Private School Group (PRSG) is comprised of 10 educators and 5 administrators. Group C consists of 8 participants – 5 educators and 3 administrators while Group D consists of 4 respondents, all of which are educators. In total, the Public School Group (PUSG) is comprised of 12 participants – 9 educators and 3 administrators. Logically, the educator class had greater representation due to the fact that this group is simply larger and responsible for implementing the programs within the schools; however, little information is derived concerning the degree of authority and influence yielded by these different sects. It seems practical that the administration would have a larger affect on bureaucratic measures such as funding while the educator sect is of greater impact on actual student outcomes. It is necessary for future research to examine the weight of these different groups to generate more accurate analysis of the results. Approximately 78% of all survey respondents were female; the 22% (6) male group all fell into the administrative categorization, 50% of which (3) were employed within the public school sector. However, this gender representation does not reflect the entire school faculty community but speaks only of the play program participants. As such, we conclude that play program implementation in this population is female driven. The demographic profile of the groups did not reveal any significant correlations to the data in terms of race in relation to the play program outcomes; however, it is interesting to note that the PRSG was predominantly Caucasian. In Group A, 83% (5) identified as White and one member identified as Hispanic. In Group B, 78% (7) were Caucasian and two respondents were African-American. The PRSG is therefore 80% White. In the PUSG, the racial profile was more diversified. In Group C, 3 (37%) were Caucasian, 3 (37%) were African-American, and 2 (25%) were Hispanic. In Group D, 2 (50%) were Caucasian, 1 (25%) was African-American and 1 (25%) was Asian-American. In total, PUSG is racially divided as: 5 (42%) were Caucasian, 4 (33%) were African-American, 2 (17%) were Hispanic, and 1 (8%) were Asian-American. The total survey race demographic is summarized in Table 2. Analysis did not reveal any significance difference in program outcome report and demographics. Again, the most relevant information is the lack of male representation and the lack of racial differentiation within the play programs, especially within the private school sector. However, further inquiry into each school’s total demographic makeup shows that there is no need for concern regarding play program disparity as the numbers are within range in reference to race. This point is not true when investigating gender. For example, in Groups A, B, and D, the total institutional presence of male educators and administrators was higher than the presence of male participation in the play program; for Group C, the gender split was relatively similar in total. All of the play program respondents taught between the 1st and 3rd grade range. Group B reported the greatest number of years in both the school system and the particular school of study, ranking them as the first in regards to experience and play program delivery duration. Group A’s program has been active for 2 school years. Group B’s program is 5 years old. Group C has 3 years and Group D estimates 4 years, however, the respondents do not have a clearly articulated program and have instead been trying to apply the theories to their lesson plans. The results demonstrate that each school was significantly different than the others in play program approach. The study is limited in that the particular differences are not clearly defined. Therefore, each school will be examined separately prior to making conclusive remarks about the play programs. Group A The play program has been active for two years. The program has a total of 4 educator participants with students ranging between 1st and 3rd grades. The 6 respondents indicated an average program satisfaction score of 6. The educators reported significantly lower ratings regarding the organization’s prioritization of the program and a low (4) average rating of the program’s improvement since inception. The administrators, however, were more highly satisfied, reporting an average rating of 8 for overall program satisfaction and a score of 7 for program prioritization. The educators and administrators were largely in agreement with the clarity of the program’s expectations. The following factors were rated as poor to fair by the educators, suggesting the source causes of this disconnect in program perception: 1) Administrator Involvement, 2) Student Learning, 3) Student Feedback, 4) Student Outcomes, and 5) Curriculum Depth. Therefore, the educator consensus was that the program was of fair benefit to the students but the effectiveness was rated as poor amongst the team. There was some differentiation of opinion amongst the two administrator respondents with one reporting that Program Achievements were excellent and the other rating these as satisfactory; however, the more useful data came from the educators who mirrored each others’ discontent. The three primary obstacle identified by the participants were: 1) funding, 2) time for planning, and 3) administration support. The short answer component revealed that the educator team was dissatisfied by the time and resources allotted to the program, stating that they were unable to successfully integrate their ideas and knowledge due to the lack of administrator support and access to needed resources. The observation period demonstrated that the program was not strongly structured. Instead, the educators loosely integrated periods of play throughout their instruction. The largest observed block of consistent time was 15 minutes and the educator did not have a curriculum guiding the process. Students were allowed to free play under the theme of letters. Some students (2nd grade) took turns acting out letters while others colored pictures and seemed to wander throughout the room. However, after this period was finished, the students did appear better able to focus on their studies. The interviews portion further outlined a division between the administration and the staff. It was evident that clear sides had been drawn although the administration was not aware of the degree of teacher dissatisfaction. Both of the administrators were male. In speaking of the play program, the language used centered on the connecting the program to the school’s overall superiority to the public school system. The educators were more interested specifically in the outcomes of the play program and required assistance with design and delivery of the program. The loosely appointed director of the program had only 3 years experience, most of which was in play program theory; her reported comfort level was a 6. In interview, she stated, â€Å"I don’t really know how to connect play to our curriculum. It is hard to balance my daily duties and research†¦. I really could use some more help. † Group B Group B had the longest running program at 5 years. Survey participants’ responses to the likert scale ratings were consistently close, depicting cohesion in performance, vision, and perception. This group reported the highest years of experience as well as the highest levels of comfort, affect, prioritization, and satisfaction. The program specifically focused on 3rd grade students. In observation, the team was highly structured in their intention and structuring of play activities. For example, one class spent an entire hour and a half period engaged in dramatic theater as part of their study of significant Americans. The teacher had devised a game where each of the students was given a role to play and allowed time to research their role/character as well as to dress in costume. The students were then invited to a party where they acted their parts as they interacted with each other. After this period, the class guessed what each student was acting. On every category, the program was rated in the Good to Excellent range by all participants. The survey showed that 7 of the team members had been involved since the program’s launch and the other 2 had at least one year’s background of active play theory experience in their prior employment institutions. The survey concluded a unanimous report of â€Å"Excellent† across the organizational team on the categories of: 1) Integration with Core Curriculum, 2) Administrator, Teacher, and Student Involvement, 3) Student Engagement, 4) Benefit to Students, 5) Program Outcomes, 6) Usefulness, and 7) Effectiveness. Additionally, the program was rated above an 8 by all participants on the topics of: 1) improvement since program launch, 2) personal involvement with the program, 3) confidence in implementation, and 4) overall experience with the program. The only significant point of dissatisfaction relates to Parent Involvement with 78% of respondents rating this item as poor to satisfactory. This factor was similarly reported as a means of improving the program’s effectiveness. The top three enhancement strategies were (in order of importance): 1) Increased Parent Involvement/Funding, 2) Access to Experts, and 3) Professional Development Courses. The core components of the program were collaboration, innovation, and accountability. Furthermore, seven of the nine participants state that the most significant point for integrating a successful play program is â€Å"Collaboration between the administration and educator team. † This finding is significant especially in comparison to Group A results and observation where this disconnect is having impact on the program’s performance and perceptions. Group C This group was the most diverse in opinion. The average rating for overall experience with the program was a 6; however, the mean rating was a 7. Approximately 60% stated they had clear expectations of the program’s expectations and initiatives; but the remaining three participants had barely any knowledge whatsoever (1 to 3). Similarly, these respondents reported significantly low confidence scores and personal involvement. On the remaining items of the test, the rater spread was such that little data could be meaningfully connected to the scores; instead, there was a wide variety of experience and opinion expressed. When analyzing the minority survey results, a few arguable consistencies were traced. The first was a general agreement that funding was the primary hurdle to the play program; additionally, these teachers tended to remark that the administration was disconnected from the student’s needs and more concerned with test scores and other performance outcome measures. The Caucasian teachers had a different perspective on the underlying problems facing program improvement; all 3 stated that a lack of parent involvement was a major disruption to program progress. The most interesting aspect of this group’s outcome was the prevalence of general agreement on the total benefit to students that held both an average and mean rating of Excellent. The three participants who reported a lack of confidence did not fail to see the benefit provided to the students. During observation, it became clear that the program participants took relaxed approach and the students were moderately to highly engaged in the activities. The student’s appeared to be â€Å"having fun;† the issue of consideration is the degree to which learning is measurably promoted in this relaxed environment. The average overall rating of 6 was connected to ratings of poor to fair in the categories of Program Design, Play Time Allotment, and Curriculum Depth. During interview, one administrator stated, â€Å"The play program allows the opportunity for the students to interact with one another and build learning relationships. † The phrase â€Å"learning relationships† was echoed in both the observation and the survey. When asked to define this concept, one educator summarized, â€Å"The learning relationship creates a social bonding experience for the earner and the educator; the students and the staff become more comfortable sharing through learning. † Another educator exampled this concept, stating that â€Å"her kids†¦openly discuss their challenges and interest† which leads to â€Å"group problem-solving† and â€Å"strong social support in the classroom. † Group D Group D is characterized by the small size of the play program team. The fo ur members, all educators, estimated four years total program implementation and generally remarked that the had been working together to integrate the theories and suggestions into their lesson plans. The lack of administrator involvement, according to the team, did not hinder their performance outcomes. Instead, the participants were strongly aligned in their survey responses. This cohesion advantaged the team. The members worked collaboratively to select and design play activities. These were then modified to fit instructor needs. The teacher’s kept journals tracking their personal observations of the effectiveness of specific activities, even using student feedback (voting) to rate the most enjoyed activities. The teachers also employed learning outcome quizzes to determine the degree of learning retention. Over the four-year period, the teachers concluded that their learning outcomes had improved by 70%, suggesting that these improvements were due to increased experience and understanding in how to effectively use play as a consistent component of a learning environment. The three key point for play program success were noted as: 1) Group Cohesion, 2) Preparation, and 3) Educator Autonomy. The teachers also supplied previous grades and reports as evidence that student performance and involvement had improved since the program’s launch. The observation period revealed that the consistency of the group was integral to determining how to best evolve the program. The teachers also reported experimenting with teacher switch and student led activities as means for spurring interest. The team also used activity split tactics to determine the best approach. In doing so, the group would decide on an activity and possible delivery methods and engagement techniques, selecting the believed best means of teaching from this pool. Two of the educators would represent the first approach and the remaining two would follow the second; there experience and data would then be shared. This team was highly organized. The administration had little input regarding the program design or operation; instead, the school’s principal commented during interview that the teachers were of the highest caliber and that both parents and students where in complete agreement. The teacher’s largest statement of need was funding. They all stated that they could enhance the program and outcomes with revenue backing and expressed a desire to bring it to a school-wide and even district-wide level after they had conclusive evidence of an effective standard program that could work with their curriculum. Discussion: Use and Limitations The survey and observation results help guide play program participants in establishing and monitoring their programs. Each of the four groups studied showed promising educational outcomes; the majority of the discrepancy in reporting is due to individual perceptions regarding how to best oversee the program’s facilitation. The survey results did not yield any conclusive data regarding play program or theory as a whole. Instead, the study in totality exposed some of the trials of program implementations and sustainability. The most significant factors in program success are cohesion, preparation, administrative support, and planned activities. This level of integration is supported in survey consensus and observation reporting. Additionally, each of the studied institutions found their program specific results to be helpful and plan on utilizing the data to drive program changes and generate support. The study is limited in its scope and validity. Likert scaling is built on a bipolar scaling method, based on a range of positive and negative responses. In using this method, the respondents must characterize the variable in question as the questionnaire does not allow for neutral responses. Additionally, the use of a ratings model creates a more broad range of clarification. However, the inherent problems of both methods are in their reliance on the respondents’ perceptions that may be affected by bias, mood, and other external factors that are inappropriate indicators of the play programs’ actual performance. Unfortunately, this ordinal data ystem combines intensity scaled questions, ranking systems, and open-ended questions. Survey reliability is difficult to measure given the sample size and the individual involvement in the development and implementation of the play program. Survey validity is arguably strong given the internal validity achieved in measuring both the educator and administrator participants in each programs’ team. However, external validity is limited. Instead, the results can be used to illu minate play program design challenges and potentialities. The results should also be evaluated from the perspective of construct validity, criterion validity, and predictive validity if the desire is to expand the survey beyond this initial pilot play program measurement approach. This is impractical at this stage of research. Achieving a higher response rate can strengthen reliability. The advantages of the survey include versatility and simplicity. Standard survey challenges of disbursement and collection are overridden by the scale and size of the sample population as well as by the predetermined commitment. As previously stated, the size and specificity of the sample population renders the results not generalizable to the greater population; however, this does not negate the importance of the survey as a contribution to the field of education. The data analysis reveals the following within the sample population: core components of successful play programs, potential diversity impacts on play programs and outcomes, avenues for program improvement, and overall play program satisfaction. Causation remains a hurdle; however, the study does reveal useful data to help guide schools in play program implementation. None of programs surveyed integrated technology into their programs. This may be a necessary direction to pursue considering the changing climate of the educational landscape. There is a strong need for more comprehensive research on this topic to better support future generations of educators in addressing student body learning needs. References: Annetta, L. , Mangrum, J. , Holmes, S. , Collazo, K. , & Cheng, M. (2009). Bridging Realty to Virtual Reality: Investigating gender effect and student engagement on learning through video game play in an elementary school classroom. International Journal of Science Education, 31(8), 1091-1113. doi:10. 1080/09500690801968656 Bergen, D. (1987). Play as a medium for learning and development: A handbook of theory and practice. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Fox, J. (n. d. ). Back-to-basics: Play in early childhood. In Early Childhood News. Retrieved from http://www. earlychildhoodnews. com/ Galvez-Martin, M. E. (1997, November 20). How to teach social studies with toys. In The Ohio State University. Hymes, J. L. (1981). Teaching children under six. Columbus, OH: Merrill. Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and psychology. New York, NY: Norton. Piaget, J. (1962). Play, dreams, and imitation in childhood. New York, NY: Norton. Rivera, M. (2009). The Powerful Effect of Play in a Child's Education. Education Digest: Essential Readings Condensed for Quick Review, 75(2), 50-52. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Smith, K. , & McKnight, K. S. (2009). Remembering to Laugh and Explore: Improvisational Activities for Literacy Teaching in Urban Classrooms. International Journal of Education & the Arts, 10(12), Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Stokes-Guinan, K. (2009, October). Child's play: Why increasing opportunities to play and be active may improve students' academic and physical outcomes. In Gardner Center. Retrieved from gardnercenter. stanford. edu/docs/Lit-Review_PlayWorks_091027. pdf Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher educational processes (14thth ed. ). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Zygmunt-Fillwalk, E. , & Bilello, T. E. (2005). Parents' victory in reclaiming recess for their children. Childhood Education (Fall), 19-23. Appendices: Table 1. Total Respondents Breakdown |GROUP |Educator # |Administrator # |Total | |A |4 (67%) |2 (33%) |6 | |B |6 (67%) |3 (33%) |9 | |Private |10 (67%) |5 (33%) |15 | C |5 (63%) |3 (37%) |8 | |D |4 (100%) |0 |4 | |Public |9 (75%) |3 (25%) |12 | |TOTAL |19 (70%) |8 (30%) |27 | Table 2. Survey Race and Gender Demographic Breakdown |Group |White |Black |Hispanic |Asian |Male |Female | |PUSG |5 |4 |2 |1 |3 |9 | |Total |17 (63%) |6 (22%) |3 (11%) |1 (4%) |6 (22%) |21 (78%) | Table 3. Top Suggested Improvements for Play Program Effectiveness Top 5 Suggested Improvements for Play Program Effectiveness | |Reported Item: |Reported PRSG Percentage: |Reported PSUG Percentage: | |â€Å"Cohesion/Collaboration† |87% |58% | |â€Å"Administrative Support† |73% |58% | |â€Å"Preparation† |53% |75% | |â€Å"Activities Planning† |47% |66% | |â€Å"Parent Involvement† |47% |50% | Appendix 1. The Play Curriculum Teacher Questionnaire About the Questionnaire The purpose of this questionnaire is to examine the theoretical and practical importance of play in the education environment and curriculum. You have been selected to participate due to your employment in an educational organizational that currently promotes and integrates play integration. Your feedback and observations are essential to determining the present efficacy of play in a primary educational atmosphere. Thank you in advance for your honest contribution. We ask that you answer each question to the best of your ability. Any additional comments, perceptions, or information can be sent back along with the completed questionnaire; however, please refrain form attaching these resources to the actual questionnaire. We assure you that all data and input will be reviewed. Anonymity For the purpose of these results, all administrator and educator names will be protected to safeguard students, school programs, and respondents. School and Professional Background: 1. Name of School: 2. Position at School: 3. Age:years old 4. Educational Background: Last level of Education Completed: Degree Received: 5. Sex: Male or Female (circle one) 6. Languages Spoken (list primary first): 7. Race/Ethnicity: 8. How long have you been working at this particular school? ______ days/months/years Within the education system? _______days/months/years 9. If you are an educator, what subjects do you teach? 10. What grade levels do you teach? 11. If you are an administrator, what are your primary functions within the school? Classroom Profile 1. Number of students total: 2. Gender ratio (Male:Female): ____:____ 3. Age range of students: _____years old to _____years old 4. Number of special education students: Classroom Diversity Assessment: DIVERSITY ITEM Very Somewhat Neutral Little None Racial |( |( |( |( |( | |Gender |( |( |( |( |( | |Learning Abilities |( |( |( |( |( | |Learning Styles |( |( |( |( |( | |Socioeconomic Backgrounds |( |( |( |( |( | Play Curriculum Assessment 1. How long has your institution been formally integrating play into the curriculum? ______days/months/years 2. How much experience do you personally have with implementing and evaluating play program outcomes? ______days/months/years 3. Please rate your Play Theory knowledge on a scale of 1 to 10 (1 minimal, 10 great): 4. Please rate your Play comfort (1 to 10): 5. Rate your satisfaction with your organization’s play program as is (1 to 10): 6. Rate your satisfaction with your organization’s play program progress since inception (1 to 10): 7. How much time per day is devoted to the play program? 8. Time per week? 9. What are the number of staff involved in the Play Program: 10. Rate the organization’s prioritization of the program (1 to 10): 11. Rate your performance in relation to the program (1 to 10): 12. Rate your improvement since the program launched (1 to 10): 13. Rate your ability to comprehend program expectations and initiatives (1 to 10): 14. Rate your personal involvement with the program (1 to 10): 15. Rate your confidence in implementing the program within your class (1 to 10): 16. Rate your overall experience with the program (1 being poor and 10 being excellent): Please rate the following items within the context of your organization’s play program. Insert Heading if Required |Poor |Fair |Satisfactory |Good |Excellent | |1. Program Design |( |( |( |( |( | |2. Play Time Allotment |( |( |( |( |( | |3. Integration w/ Core Curriculum |( |( |( |( |( | |4. Aministrator Involvement |( |( |( |( |( | |5. Administrator Feedback |( |( |( |( |( | |Teacher Involvement |( |( |( |( |( | |Teacher Feedback |( |( |( |( |( | |Program Monitoring |( |( |( |( |( | |Student Learning |( |( |( |( |( | Student Improvement |( |( |( |( |( | |Student Engagement |( |( |( |( |( | |Student Feedback |( |( |( |( |( | |Student Outcomes |( |( |( |( |( | |Parent Involvement |( |( |( |( |( | |Parent Feedback ( |( |( |( |( | |Curriculum Engagement |( |( |( |( |( | |Curriculum Depth |( |( |( |( |( | |Participants Cohesion |( |( |( |( |( | | | | | | | | OVERALL PROGRAM ASSESSMENT: |1. Benefit to Students |( |( |( |( |( | |2. Program Implementation |( |( |( |( |( | |3. Play Time |( |( |( |( |( | |4. Program Achievements |( |( |( |( |( | |5. Program Outcomes |( |( |( |( |( | |Usefulness |( |( |( |( |( | |Effectiveness |( |( |( |( |( | Please briefly delineate the core components of your program: Please briefly identify major obstacles (i. e. administrative support, funding, etc. ): Please briefly comment on your observations regarding student participation and benefit: Please briefly explain your conclusions regarding the effectiveness of your organization’s play program: Offer 5 suggested improvements or changes that would make the play program more effective: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. List three key points for successfully integrating a play program: 1. 2. 3. Please use the below space to include any additional comments you feel necessary to provide a comprehensive and accurate understanding of play programs integration and implementation:

Deception Point Page 11

Now Rachel was impressed. The President had protected himself with typical Herney aplomb. By hiring the ultimate team of skeptics – outsiders who had nothing to gain by confirming the NASA discovery – Herney had immunized himself against suspicions that this might be a desperate NASA ploy to justify its budget, reelect their NASA-friendly President, and ward off Senator Sexton's attacks. â€Å"Tonight at eight P.M.,† Herney said, â€Å"I will be calling a press conference at the White House to announce this discovery to the world.† Rachel felt frustrated. Herney had essentially told her nothing. â€Å"And this discovery is what, precisely?† The President smiled. â€Å"You will find patience a virtue today. This discovery is something you need to see for yourself. I need you to understand this situation fully before we proceed. The administrator of NASA is waiting to brief you. He will tell you everything you need to know. Afterward, you and I will further discuss your role.† Rachel sensed an impending drama in the President's eyes and recalled Pickering's hunch that the White House had something up its sleeve. Pickering, it appeared, was right, as usual. Herney motioned to a nearby airplane hangar. â€Å"Follow me,† he said, walking toward it. Rachel followed, confused. The building before them had no windows, and its towering bay doors were sealed. The only access seemed to be a small entryway on the side. The door was ajar. The President guided Rachel to within a few feet of the door and stopped. â€Å"End of the line for me,† he said, motioning to the door. â€Å"You go through there.† Rachel hesitated. â€Å"You're not coming?† â€Å"I need to return to the White House. I'll speak to you shortly. Do you have a cellphone?† â€Å"Of course, sir.† â€Å"Give it to me.† Rachel produced her phone and handed it to him, assuming he intended to program a private contact number into it. Instead, he slipped her phone into his pocket. â€Å"You're now off-the-grid,† the President said. â€Å"All your responsibilities at work have been covered. You will not speak to anyone else today without express permission from myself or the NASA administrator. Do you understand?† Rachel stared. Did the President just steal my cell-phone? â€Å"After the administrator briefs you on the discovery, he will put you in contact with me via secure channels. I'll talk to you soon. Good luck.† Rachel looked at the hangar door and felt a growing uneasiness. President Herney put a reassuring hand on her shoulder and nodded toward the door. â€Å"I assure you, Rachel, you will not regret assisting me in this matter.† Without another word, the President strode toward the PaveHawk that had brought Rachel in. He climbed aboard, and took off. He never once looked back. 12 Rachel Sexton stood alone on the threshold of the isolated Wallops hangar and peered into the blackness beyond. She felt like she was on the cusp of another world. A cool and musty breeze flowed outward from the cavernous interior, as if the building were breathing. â€Å"Hello?† she called out, her voice wavering slightly. Silence. With rising trepidation, she stepped over the threshold. Her vision went blank for an instant as her eyes became accustomed to the dimness. â€Å"Ms. Sexton, I presume?† a man's voice said, only yards away. Rachel jumped, wheeling toward the sound. â€Å"Yes, sir.† The hazy shape of a man approached. As Rachel's vision cleared, she found herself standing face to face with a young, stone-jawed buck in a NASA flight suit. His body was fit and muscle-bound, his chest bedecked with patches. â€Å"Commander Wayne Loosigian,† the man said. â€Å"Sorry if I startled you, ma'am. It's pretty dark in here. I haven't had a chance to open the bay doors yet.† Before Rachel could respond, the man added, â€Å"It will be my honor to be your pilot this morning.† â€Å"Pilot?† Rachel stared at the man. I just had a pilot. â€Å"I'm here to see the administrator.† â€Å"Yes, ma'am. My orders are to transport you to him immediately.† It took a moment for the statement to sink in. When it hit her, she felt a stab of deceit. Apparently, her travels were not over. â€Å"Where is the administrator?† Rachel demanded, wary now. â€Å"I do not have that information,† the pilot replied. â€Å"I will receive his coordinates after we are airborne.† Rachel sensed that the man was telling the truth. Apparently she and Director Pickering were not the only two people being kept in the dark this morning. The President was taking the issue of security very seriously, and Rachel felt embarrassed by how quickly and effortlessly the President had taken her â€Å"off-the-grid.† Half an hour in the field, and I'm already stripped of all communication, and my director has no idea where I am. Standing now before her stiff-backed NASA pilot, Rachel had little doubt her morning plans were cast in stone. This carnival ride was leaving with Rachel onboard whether she liked it or not. The only question was where it was headed. The pilot strode over to the wall and pressed a button. The far side of the hangar began sliding loudly to one side. Light poured in from the outside, silhouetting a large object in the center of the hangar. Rachel's mouth fell open. God help me. There in the middle of the hangar stood a ferocious-looking black fighter jet. It was the most streamlined aircraft Rachel had ever seen. â€Å"You are joking,† she said. â€Å"Common first reaction, ma'am, but the F-14 Tomcat Split-tail is a highly proven craft.† It's a missile with wings. The pilot led Rachel toward his craft. He motioned to the dual cockpit. â€Å"You'll be riding in back.† â€Å"Really?† She gave him a tight smile. â€Å"And here I thought you wanted me to drive.† After donning a thermal flight suit over her clothes, Rachel found herself climbing into the cockpit. Awkwardly, she wedged her hips into the narrow seat. â€Å"NASA obviously has no fat-assed pilots,† she said. The pilot gave a grin as he helped Rachel buckle herself in. Then he slid a helmet over her head. â€Å"We'll be flying pretty high,† he said. â€Å"You'll want oxygen.† He pulled an oxygen mask from the side dash and began snapping it onto her helmet. â€Å"I can manage,† Rachel said, reaching up and taking over. â€Å"Of course, ma'am.† Rachel fumbled with the molded mouthpiece and then finally snapped it onto her helmet. The mask's fit was surprisingly awkward and uncomfortable. The commander stared at her for a long moment, looking vaguely amused. â€Å"Is something wrong?† she demanded. â€Å"Not at all, ma'am.† He seemed to be hiding a smirk. â€Å"Hack sacks are under your seat. Most people get sick their first time in a split-tail.† â€Å"I should be fine,† Rachel assured him, her voice muffled by the smothering fit of the mask. â€Å"I'm not prone to motion sickness.† The pilot shrugged. â€Å"A lot of Navy Seals say the same thing, and I've cleaned plenty of Seal puke out of my cockpit.† She nodded weakly. Lovely. â€Å"Any questions before we go?† Rachel hesitated a moment and then tapped on the mouthpiece cutting into her chin. â€Å"It's cutting off my circulation. How do you wear these things on long flights?† The pilot smiled patiently. â€Å"Well, ma'am, we don't usually wear them upside down.† Poised at the end of the runway, engines throbbing beneath her, Rachel felt like a bullet in a gun waiting for someone to pull the trigger. When the pilot pushed the throttle forward, the Tomcat's twin Lockheed 345 engines roared to life, and the entire world shook. The brakes released, and Rachel slammed backward in her seat. The jet tore down the runway and lifted off within a matter of seconds. Outside, the earth dropped away at a dizzying rate.

Cook Essay

For many years, I have been interested in studying baking and pastry arts. I want to pursue a career in culinary arts and attend a college that will allow me to be creative and collaborate with people that share the same passion. To me education is the most important asset that you can have or achieve. By attending college I want to gain my associates degree, by using the knowledge I learned and hope to begin a career as a pastry chef in a well-known restaurant, and to eventually own my own bakery. Since I was a child my dad told me to go to college, earn a degree and get a good job. Lakes region provides me with an opportunity to accomplish my goal. I want to learn the history and techniques used for baking and take that knowledge and turn it into master piece. I want people to fall in love with cakes, candy, chocolate, and every other dessert under the sun the way that I have. To gain this degree it would prove to everyone including myself that I can go back to school and achieve w hat I set out to do. To earn my associates degree is very important to me because without continuing my education I wouldn’t be able to accomplish my future priorities. I feel so much pride when a cake rises into perfection, when chocolate unmolds successfully without breakage, or when the fondant goes on smoothly without any rips. My dream is to work at an upscale restaurant and be the lead pastry chef. LRCC it would make my dream into reality and prepare me for what the future lies ahead. â€Å"Find a job you love and you’ll never have to work a day in your life.† This quote by Jim Fox is a hundred percent true, whenever I’m in the kitchen baking I feel like this is what I’m supposed to be doing and I enjoy every bit. Having the ability to create multiple varieties of deserts and to decorate them would fulfill my dreams of becoming a pastry chef. The importance of your college having an impact on my life is major because without the help of the chefs teaching, guiding and handing down there knowledge is more than I could ever ask for. Without the experience and education your college could give me, I wouldn’t have the chance to work along great pastry chefs and learn and grow. A wise man once said â€Å"that our lives are defined by what we do.† Enrolling in culinary school is defining my life in a major way. I know what I want and it is to accomplish all my goals so that I have a more desirable future. I’ve never been so passionate about anything in my life. It’s important that I stay on track and give it my all so I can get my associates and then one day own a bakery. My  education is highly important to me because I want to be able to have a successful life. When I earn my associates degree it will help me achieve my dream job working as a chef. Lakes region community college is going to prepare me for everything I need to know to succeed. By attending the Lakes region community college I will gain my associates degree, begin a career as a chef, and one day own a bakery.

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Leadership Theory of Situational Approach - Research Paper Example ys strategies that gives the manager the capabilities to deal with a wide range of people hence creating a more employee centric and innovative organization through the level of direct contact that the manager has with the employees at all levels. Situational Leaders adjusts their leadership style according to the behavior and level of their employees. The different leadership styles used by different leaders include: Directive, Coaching, Participating and Delegating (Fielder, 1967) Directive or Telling leadership approach is a leadership style where the leader instructs subordinates on what to do and how to do it. It focuses on goal achievement and less support. It is used mainly within the law enforcement, manufacturing assembly lines and Military. It provides a means of managing diverse group of people that span a wide range of experience and maturity levels. Coaching or selling is another leadership style where the manager provides information and direction. This form of leadership focuses on goal achievement and is supportive that is it gives instructions on how goals are achieved and supervises it. It is mostly used in an internship situation. Participating leadership on the other hand is a leadership style where leaders focus more on relationships than direction. In this style of leadership, the manager works closely with the team and shares decision making responsibilities. It is characterized by listening, praising, asking for input and giving back hence highly supportive and low directive (Hersey and Blanchard, 1977). It is used mainly by corporate leaders in an attempt to influence the board of directors towards developing a new policy. Delegating is also another leadership style where the manager is usually less involved with decisions, he or she tells the subordinates what need to be achieved and therefore he or she is able to focus on the work and achievements of subordinates. This style is applied mostly to university professors who are given

Critical reading assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Critical reading assignment - Essay Example The scientist argued that the Jews-Muslim convivencia had contrasting political motives or goals. Some state that Jews and Muslim existed in fully harmony that time. Others state that they were under pressure all the time, and their rights were impaired. For better understanding the Jews position, Cohen in his article used a comparative approach, and in such way explained lots of gaps. Undoubtedly, it was the period of harmony existence of the Jews and the Muslims, but nevertheless there were some restrictions and exceptions. Cohen tries to show how different were life the Jews in Islamic and Christian world. According to the article, Jews had lots of rights in Muslim world, they were well informed and took part in Muslim courts and economic life, and at the same time their position among the Christian were between the horns of dilemma (Cohen 4). According to the archives, it is possible to make a conclusion that the Jews adopted in some way the elements of culture of the Muslims. It to study the culture of Jews carefully, it is possible to find many similarities between their culture and the culture of Muslims. Those who lived in the Christian lands suffered along the whole history. Those who lived in Ashkenazic world suffered much less than historians stated in theirs book. Cohen provides in the article much approval concerning this point. He claimed that they had rights; moreover, they had integrated some Christian motives into Judaism as well. It is essential to pay attention to what attitude Islam and Christianity had to the Judaism. Speaking about religion, Islam treated Judaism much more positively than Christianity. If we read the New Testament we can find that Jews were rejected on theological basis. The Qur’an is not rejecting religious pluralism, but at the same time considers Islam to be the prevailing religion. The difference is that Islam is monotheistic religion, as opposed to the Christianity, with its Trinity. The other significant diffe rence is that Muhammad died naturally in contrast to the Christ, who was crucified. These differences caused quite different attitude to the Jews and their position among the Reconquista Spain and the Ashkenazic lands (Cohen 4). The Jews had a legal status in Muslim world. They had to pay some per year taxes, they had no restrictions on the manifestation of their religion, they only had to wear a special clothes, in order to be recognized among Muslims. They were trusted enough to hold the official positions. There was a period when both the Jews and the Christian can participate in the political life of the Islamic states. They could be translators or diplomats. Cohen in his article pays especial attention to the economic factor. The Muslims and the Christians had absolutely different approach and attitude towards the Jews. The Jews were associated with luxury, they were international traders. But later they Christians developed bad attitude towards them. Quite different attitude c ould be noticed in the Islamic world. They not only served some goods, but also had some functions, wrote letters etc â€Å"For other reasons, too, Jews occupied a more stable and enduring place in the social order of Islam than they did in northern Christian Europe. Islam, like Christendom, is a hierarchical society. Jews occupied a place on the hierarchical ladder-- a lowly place but a place nonetheless. The same was true of Christendom in the early middle

Human Devoloped Theories Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Human Devoloped Theories - Research Paper Example Diverse human development theories have been developed to predict, explain the different stages of the development. The paper will do an introduction to the key concept of the human development theory, the research evidence and the contemporary issues of the cognitive and psychosocial theories of the human development. The cognitive theory refer to ego development that is understanding of how the child emerges and shapes a personal identity with goals, beliefs and strategies for achieving goals within the constraints of the society. On the other hand, the psychosocial theory describe development stage that are assumed to be build upon accomplishment of the earlier stage that help to identify factors and processes that are likely to contribute to the observed decline in self-esteem of the children. These theories are outlined in turn, their similarities and differences are noted, and common criticisms are discussed to help understand the importance of each theory. The theories use stage models with similar concepts but organize them in different ways; the psychosocial theory has eight development stages that show how the child develop at each stage; on the other hand cognitive theory has four development stages that discuss the mental development of the child. Finally, the dominant stage in the two theories, the adolescent stage, is described, and some vital areas of the stage and the research based on it are mentioned.

Carl Robins Case Study Essay Example for Free

Carl Robins Case Study Essay The position of campus recruiter for a company is one of importance. The recruiter is the person who makes sure the company has access to the best candidates available. The first order of business for any recruiter is to set up job fairs, develop a list of possible candidates, and conduct on-campus interviews of those applicants. There are many skills needed by a campus recruiter, and for someone that is new to the position, training and guidance are keys to successfully learning the necessary skills that will help prevent or solve issues in a satisfactory manner. In April, ABC, Inc. decided they were in need of new employees, ones that could be ready to work by July. Carl Robins, the new campus recruiter for the company, is in charge of finding the necessary people. He successfully hired 15 new people to work for the Operations Supervisor, Monica Carrolls. Carl had six to eight weeks to coordinate the necessary activities, so that the new hires could begin working by July. Despite prompting from Monica, Carl did not realize the amount of effort required to set up the large training session required for the quantity of people he had coming for orientation. If Carl had thought to use a timeline for specific tasks, or even written a list of all requirements waiting for completion, he could have avoided the frustration and confusion he encountered. Carl Robins has been at his job for only six months and is excited by the success of his first recruitment effort. Unfortunately, Carl had no guidance to know exactly what tasks needed prompt completion to ensure that the new employees would be ready to start work on time. Monica Carrolls contacted Carl on May 15, and tried to guide him in the right direction by asking if he had all the necessary tasks organized – completed paperwork and drug tests, orientation manuals, policy booklets, and training space reserved. Carl assured her that things were running smoothly and would be ready on time, and that she would have all of her new employees when needed. It is hard to tell, based on the information  given, if Carl was over-confident or just did not realize the urgency required to get things completed on a timely schedule. Because of procrastination and his lack of skill, Carl has found several problems that managed to sneak up on him. There are several key issues facing Carl that need some serious attention. Due to the lack of proper time management, Carl has lost at least a month worth of time in which to get things organized. When Carl started to finalize all the necessary paperwork, he discovered several disturbing problems. One main responsibility for any campus recruiter is to â€Å"ensure that all required paperwork is completed appropriately during the interview process: applications for employment, indexes, and appropriate authorizations† (C.E., 2010). As he started to look through all the applicants’ paperwork, Carl discovered that many applications were incomplete, others were missing transcripts, and none of the new hires had completed drug testing. When he went to look at the necessary orientation manuals, he could not find one complete book, only three books with various pages missing. He then discovered that the training room was already booked for the entire month of June, so that Joe could conduct the computer training seminars. The first task that Carl needs to complete is all the incomplete applications and missing transcripts. He needs to contact the applicants to get the necessary missing information, and contact the college campus to get a rush on all the missing transcripts. The second task needing completion is the mandatory drug testing for all 15 people. Carl should know the company policy concerning the drug testing and should be aware of where the employees need to go to get the testing done. Carl was responsible for letting the applicants know â€Å"the circumstances under which testing will be required†¦ as part of a pre-employment screening, a random screening, as part of an incident investigation and reasonable suspicion† (Brown, 2010, pg. 2). As part of his job requirements, Carl needs to get all 15 people scheduled for testing immediately, so there will be no issues, legal or otherwise, by the time orientation starts. The third and fourth issues go hand-in-hand. Carl has to find a complete manual that he can get copies printed from, and find an available meeting room in which to conduct the orientation, since he did not reserve the training room early enough. For the manuals, he has two options to pursue. The first would be to contact the human resources department to see if there is a digital copy  available to take to a print shop, which would be the most cost-effective method. Otherwise, he will have to try to piece together one complete manual from the three incomplete ones he found. This option is more time consuming, for him and the print shop, because they have to deal with individual pages. Without knowing the exact process used at a print shop, the reader has to make assumptions that printing from a digital copy is easier than scanning individual pages into a computer before printing. As for the meeting room, even though Joe beat him to the ‘official’ training room, many companies have conference rooms large enough to hold a sizeable group of people. If ABC, Inc. does not have a conference room large enough, the only other option is to look at renting an outside meeting room. Many restaurants and hotels have rooms available for fairly decent prices, and even some local banks tend to have meeting rooms available, free for use by just about anybody. By having the issues sufficiently identified, along with some options to correct them, the first recommendation is for Carl to receive complete training for the job he needs to do. If he had been aware from the start of the amount of effort required in hiring a large group of people, and the activities required to get everything set up for orientation, Carl would have realized that he needed to be more aggressive in his efforts. Proper training would have shown him that applications had to be complete before the campus interview, and â€Å"following the campus interview, transcripts should be requested for all [new hires]†¦ preferably before the recruiters leave campus† (Indiana, 2011, pg. 1). Carl could have avoided the first issue completely, just by having all applications and transcripts complete before he offered jobs to the applicants. The second recommendation is to improve communications between Carl and the other departments, especially the human resources department. Better communication will help alleviate the other problems because the department heads could help Carl design an appropriate timeline for task completion. They could also have informed him that others would need access to the training room, giving him ample time to make other arrangements if necessary. By talking to other recruiters within the company – if there are any – Carl would have had access to the knowledge the others could have contributed. A more experienced recruiter could act as a mentor for Carl, showing him the exact processes used to coordinate all the required  activities. This would have helped Carl get things done in a timely manner. A third recommendation to help ease the burden on Carl, until he is well trained and completely comfortable with his job, is for him to focus on recruiting smaller groups of people at one time. A large group is too much for a new person to handle at one time. Many companies would rather have smaller groups of well-trained individuals than a large group that knows only the basics. This ultimately saves money on training costs while preventing the possibility of on-the-job accidents due to incomplete training. Because Carl had been at his job for only six months, he did not have a good grasp on the skills required by a campus recruiter, and this is what led to his frustration. To be an effective recruiter, Carl needs to develop these skills quickly, especially those pertaining to â€Å"strong time management, follow-through, and organizational skills, [along with] the ability to multi-task, resolve problems, and determine an appropriate course of action in a timely manner† (C.E., 2010). A mentor to oversee his training would have helped Carl recognize the areas he needed help in, thereby preventing any issues with incomplete paperwork, no manuals, and the lack of training space. Even though Carl faced many issues with his first recruitment effort, critical thinking and calm reasoning will allow him to learn from his mistakes, so that his next effort shows serious improvement. References Brown, A. (2010, April). Employee Drug Testing: Implement Policy to Save Money, Manage Risk. Alaska Business Monthly. Vol. 4, Article 21. Retrieved from http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Alaska+Business+Monthly/2010/April/1-p5643 C.E. (2010). What is a Corporate Recruiter Job Description? Retrieved from http://www.constructionexecutive.com/article_details/1691/What-is-a-Corporate-Recruiter-Job-Description.html â€Å"Campus Recruiter Responsibilities.† June 2011. Indiana University, 16 Sept. 2012. Retrieved from http://www.indiana.edu/~jobtalk/HRMwebsite/hrm/articles/recruit/response.pdf,

Direct and Online Marketing - the New Marketing Model Essay Example for Free

Direct and Online Marketing the New Marketing Model Essay I. INTRODUCTION With the growth of the Internet community and the limitless possibilities the Internet gives to the single user, it didnt take long before someone realized that the World Wide Web is a really good place for the commercial entrepreneur. So, very quickly the online market was born, offering almost all kinds of goods to be purchased and delivered to your door. This new online sensation was called electronic commerce, or ecommerce. E-commerce is a complex term referring to the process of selling and buying products and services over the Internet or other electronic systems. Considered as the sales aspect of the e-business, the electronic commerce has revolutionized trade as a routine activity for the contemporary man by bringing the marketplace to your home or the office, thus saving you time and efforts. The development of e-commerce has given birth to new terms such as electronic funds transfer, online transaction processing, electronic data interchange (EDI), Internet marketing, automated data collection systems, etc. They all designate certain key components of the sophisticated e-commerce system. The majority of processes running within the e-commerce system are carried out on the World Wide Web. It is on the web where goods and services are presented through variously designed e-commerce websites to match the taste of a particular target audience. From there customers can order the desired items and pay for them in a variety of supported e-payment options such as credit cards, PayPal, etc. Certain e-commerce operations are executed via email as well. These may include sending order placement confirmations or electronic invoice notifications to the buyers personal mailbox after a particular purchase. Depending on the nature of the offered products and services, ecommerce operations may involve virtual and physical items. Due to the increasing use of the Internet in our daily lives, the percentage of the virtual items distributed through ecommerce is rapidly growing. These include services like buying admission to limited access websites or electronic versions of newspapers and magazines, online gaming, etc. Nevertheless, the majority of e-commerce transactions are still related to the purchase and transportation of physical items. As far as the parties involved in the online transaction process are concerned, ecommerce can be thought of as being business-to-consumer, more popular as B2C, and business-to-business, also known as B2B. The B2C ecommerce, conducted between business entities and consumers, includes all online stores (e-shops) offering retail products and services to end customers such as flower stores, shoe stores, furniture stores, etc. The B2B commerce, on the other hand, takes place between business entities only, such as wholesalers and retailers, on not that widely popular web stores. The rapid expansion of ecommerce has made it possible for almost all big retail companies to set up their own online stores with regularly updated content. Thus, it is now easier than ever to obtain an item from the latest collection of your favorite clothes brand, or be among the first to take advantage of a starting clearance campaign. Moreover, the ecommerce fashion is gradually infecting smaller retail companies, which find it as a good chance to expand their reach to potential customers and increase the selling volumes. This trend is stimulated by the attractive low-cost ecommerce hosting services offered by different hosts on the web. II. ONLINE MARKETING Online marketing, also known as online advertisement, internet marketing, online marketing or e-marketing, is the marketing and promotion of products or services over the Internet. Online advertising is a form of promotion that uses the Internet and World Wide Web to deliver marketing messages to attract customers. TYPES OF ONLINE MARKETING * Search Engine Optimization (SEO) is the process of affecting the visibility of a website or a web page in a search engines natural or un-paid (organic) search results. In general, the earlier (or higher ranked on the search results page), and more frequently a site appears in the search results list, the more visitors it will receive from the search engines users. SEO may target different kinds of search, including image search, local search, video search, academic search, news search and industry-specific vertical search engines. As an Internet marketing strategy, SEO considers how search engines work, what people search for, the actual search terms or keywords typed into search engines and which search engines are preferred by their targeted audience. Optimizing a website may involve editing its content, HTML and associated coding to both increase its relevance to specific keywords and to remove barriers to the indexing activities of search engines. Promoting a site to increase the number of backlinks, or inbound links, is another SEO tactic. The plural of the abbreviation SEO can refer to search engine optimizers, those who provide SEO service. * Pay-Per-Click Advertising (also called cost per click) is an Internet advertising model used to direct traffic to websites, where advertisers pay the publisher (typically a website owner) when the ad is clicked. With search engines, advertisers typically bid on keyword phrases relevant to their target market. Content sites commonly charge a fixed price per click rather than use a bidding system. PPC display advertisements, also known as banner ads, are shown on web sites or search engine results with related content that have agreed to show ads. In contrast to the generalized portal, which seeks to drive a high volume of traffic to one site, PPC implements the so-called affiliate model that provides purchase opportunities wherever people may be surfing. It does this by offering financial incentives (in the form of a percentage of revenue) to affiliated partner sites. The affiliates provide purchase-point click-through to the merchant. It is a pay-for-performance model: If an affiliate does not generate sales, it represents no cost to the merchant. Variations include banner exchange, pay-per-click, and revenue sharing programs. Websites that utilize PPC ads will display an advertisement when a keyword query matches an advertisers keyword list, or when a content site displays relevant content. Such advertisements are called sponsored links or sponsored ads, and appear adjacent to, above, or beneath organic results on search engine results pages, or anywhere a web developer chooses on a content site. Among PPC providers, Google AdWords, Yahoo! Search Marketing, and Microsoft adCenter used to be the three largest network operators, and all three operate under a bid-based model. In 2010, Yahoo and Microsoft launched their combined effort against Google and Microsofts Bing began to be the search engine that Yahoo used to provide its search results. Since they joined forces, their PPC platform was renamed AdCenter. Their combined network of third party sites that allow AdCenter ads to populate banner and text ads on their site is called BingAds. The PPC advertising model is open to abuse through click fraud, although Google and others have implemented automated systems to guard against abusive clicks by competitors or corrupt web developers. * Email Marketing is directly marketing a commercial message to a group of people using email. In its broadest sense, every email sent to a potential or current customer could be considered email marketing. It usually involves using email to send ads, request business, or solicit sales or donations, and is meant to build loyalty, trust, or brand awareness. Email marketing can be done to either cold lists or current customer database. Broadly, the term is usually used to refer to: * Sending email messages with the purpose of enhancing the relationship of a merchant with its current or previous customers, to encourage customer loyalty and repeat business, * Sending email messages with the purpose of acquiring new customers or convincing current customers to purchase something immediately, * Adding advertisements to email messages sent by other companies to their customers Researchers estimate that United States firms alone spent US $1.51 billion on email marketing in 2011 and will grow to $2.468 billion by 2016. * Affiliate Marketing is a type of performance-based marketing in which a business rewards one or more affiliates for each visitor or customer brought about by the affiliates own marketing efforts. The industry has four core players: the merchant (also known as retailer or brand), the network (that contains offers for the affiliate to choose from and also takes care of the payments), the publisher (also known as the affiliate), and the customer. The market has grown in complexity to warrant a secondary tier of players, including affiliate management agencies, super-affiliates and specialized third party vendors. Affiliate marketing overlaps with other Internet marketing methods to some degree, because affiliates often use regular advertising methods. Those methods include organic search engine optimization (SEO), paid search engine marketing (PPC Pay Per Click), e-mail marketing, and in some sense display advertising. On the other hand, affiliates sometimes use less orthodox techniques, such as publishing reviews of products or services offered by a partner. Affiliate marketing is commonly confused with referral marketing, as both forms of marketing use third parties to drive sales to the retailer. However, both are distinct forms of marketing and the main difference between them is that affiliate marketing relies purely on financial motivations to drive sales while referral marketing relies on trust and personal relationships to drive sales. Affiliate marketing is frequently overlooked by advertisers. While search engines, e-mail, and website syndication capture much of the attention of online retailers, affiliate marketing carries a much lower profile. Still, affiliates continue to play a significant role in e-retailers marketing strategies. * Display Advertising is a type of advertising that typically contains text (i.e., copy), logos, photographs or other images, location maps, and similar items. In periodicals, display advertising can appear on the same page as, or on the page adjacent to, general editorial content. In contrast, classified advertising generally appears in a distinct section, was traditionally text-only, and was available in a limited selection of typefaces. Display advertisements are not required to contain images, audio, or video: Textual advertisements are also used where text may be more appropriate or more effective. An example of textual advertisements is commercial messages sent to mobile device users, or email. One common form of display advertising involves billboards. Posters, fliers, transit cards, tents, scale models are examples of display advertising.. Display advertising appears on web pages in many forms, including web banners. Banner ad standards continue to evolve. * Blogging. A weblog, also called a blog, is a journal that is maintained by a blogger and contains information that is instantly published to their blog website. Blogging is a very popular activity. The number of online users creating and maintaining blogs has increased dramatically over the past year. The number Internet users who read these blogs has also shot up, with some blogs boasting thousands, even millions of daily dedicated readers. Blog marketing is any process that publicizes or advertises a website, business, brand or service via the medium of blogs. This includes, but is not limited to marketing via ads placed on blogs, recommendations and reviews by the blogger, promotion via entries on third party blogs and cross-syndication of information across multiple blogs. * Community Building. An online community is a virtual community that exists online and whose members enable its existence through taking part in membership ritual. An online community can take the form of an information system where anyone can post content, such as a Bulletin board system or one where only a restricted number of people can initiate posts, such as Weblogs. Online communities have also become a supplemental form of communication between people who know each other primarily in real life. Many means are used in social separately or in combination, including text-based chat rooms and forums that use voice, video text or avatars. Significant socio-technical change may have resulted from the proliferation of such Internet-based social networks. * Social Media Marketing refers to the process of gaining website traffic or attention through social media sites. Social media marketing programs usually center on efforts to create content that attracts attention and encourages readers to share it with their social networks. A corporate message spreads from user to user and presumably resonates because it appears to come from a trusted, third-party source, as opposed to the brand or company itself. Hence, this form of marketing is driven by word-of-mouth, meaning it results in earned media rather than paid media. Social media has become a platform that is easily accessible to anyone with internet access. Increased communication for organizations fosters brand awareness and often, improved customer service. Additionally, social media serves as a relatively inexpensive platform for organizations to implement marketing campaigns. Social media marketing involves the use of social networks, COBRAs and eWOM to successfully advertise online. Social networks such as Facebook and Twitter provide advertisers with information about the likes and dislikes of their consumers. This technique is crucial, as it provides the businesses with a â€Å"target audience†. With social networks, information relevant to the user’s likes is available to businesses; who then advertise accordingly. Consumer’s online brand related activities (COBRAs) is another method used by advertisers to promote their products. An activity such as uploading a picture of your â€Å"new Converse sneakers to Facebook† is an example of a COBRA. Another technique for social media marketing is electronic word of mouth (eWOM). Electronic recommendations and appraisals are a convenient manner to have a product promoted via â€Å"consumer-to-consumer interactions†. An example of eWOM would be an online hotel review; the hotel company can have two possible outcomes based on their service. A good service would result in a positive review which gets the hotel free advertisement via social media; however a poor service will result in a negative consumer review which can potentially ruin the companys reputation. ADVANTAGE OF ONLINE MARKETING These are some of the many advantages that online marketing offers over traditional media outlets: 1. Reduced Cost The starting cost of online marketing is only a fraction of the thousands of dollars that Yellow Pages, television and radio ads cost. For example, you can get a free listing on Google Local that will be just as effective as a costly online Yellow Pages ad. In addition, while traditional ads may only run for a short time, a search engine optimization campaign can deliver long-term results. You can also save money with online Pay-Per-Click advertising where it is easy to experiment with small ad volumes until you perfect your strategy and then expand your marketing budget when you are assured of a positive sales return. 2. Everything Is Measurable When you place an ad in the newspaper or a magazine, it can be difficult to assess the direct sales impact for your business. With online marketing, everything can be tracked and illustrated in detailed graphs that illustrate traffic growth, leads and sales conversions from your specific search marketing campaigns. Using a free traffic analysis tool like Google Analytics, it is easy to calculate your return on investment (ROI) so you can appreciate the excellent value generated from your online marketing budget. 3. Brand Engagement In the crowded market, you need to establish and maintain positive brand awareness and client loyalty. Apart from word-of-mouth and leveraging your personal relationships with your established clients, a website is the most important marketing tool a business can have. A regularly updated website with well-written content that maintains people’s interest is essential to showing people exactly how your business is distinctive and how you offer the best value to your clients. 4. Demographic Targeting The degree to which an online marketing campaign can target and measure the response from specific demographics and regions is often astonishing to business owners who normally use traditional media. New demographic prediction and online advertising platforms allow you to specifically target the specific consumer demographics most likely to buy your products. In particular, if you want to target young people between the ages of 16-30, youll need an online marketing strategy to reach them where they spend the bulk of their time: On the Internet and on social media sites. 5. Real-Time Results With online marketing you don’t have to wait weeks to see a significant boost in your business. With a paid search marketing campaign you can experience real-time results that enable you to fine-tune your marketing message to achieve your desired effect. If your marketing strategy isnt working effectively, real-time monitoring tools allow you to easily pin-point exactly where you are going wrong. 6. Easily Refine Your Strategy Using online marketing analytics and tracking tools you can test conversion rates at a fraction of the cost of a traditional media campaign. Online marketing levels the playing field and allows savvy small businesses to compete in competitive niches that previously would only be open to large corporations and their massive marketing budgets. If your marketing strategy is not bringing in the return on investment (ROI) that you desire, you can work to perfect it without having to launch an expensive new campaign as would be required with most traditional media outlets. 7. Long-Term Exposure The benefit of an organic search marketing campaign that optimizes a website for specific keywords is that you will achieve a long-term return on your investment. Once your website’s visibility is well-established with search engines, it is easy to do regular low-cost maintenance of your strategy. The early adopters of new online marketing platforms like social media marketing will have a significant head start over their competition. 8. Product Information Today’s savvy consumers want to compare reviews and opinions of friends, trusted bloggers and industry experts before they make a decision. If you can provide quality, linkable information that is what people are looking for, then the next step of converting users into paying clients can be very easy. With social media networks like Facebook and Twitter re-enforcing the value of positive word-of-mouth exposure, trust is more important than ever in the marketing field. 9. Less Intrusive Most savvy consumers dislike intrusive traditional marketing methods like direct mailing, print ads and television advertisements. When someone buys a newspaper or magazine, they want to read interesting articles not be bombarded with irrelevant ads. While mediums like television can still be useful for maintaining awareness of large corporate brands, it is not an effective medium for most small and medium-size businesses. With online marketing, you can target consumers precisely when they are searching for products and services that your business can provide. 10. Holds Their Attention When people read the newspaper or a magazine they may scan over the advertisements beside the article but there is no way to engage their attention. With online marketing you can encourage them to take action, visit your website and read about your products and services which results in vastly increased â€Å"stickiness† of your marketing message.